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  • Baldauf, D., Burgard, E., & Wittmann, M. (2009). Time perception as a workload measure in simulated car driving. Applied Ergonomics, 40(5), 929–935. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2009.01.004

    In experimental studies using flight simulations subjects' duration estimates have shown to be an effective indicator of cognitive task demands. In this study we wanted to find out whether subjective time perception could serve as a measure of cognitive workload during simulated car driving. Participants drove on a round course of a driving simulator consisting of three different environments with different levels of task demands. Drivers were required to perform a time-production task while driving the vehicle. Electrodermal activity and subjective ratings of mental workload (SWAT) were recorded simultaneously. The length of produced intervals increased significantly in more complex driving situations, as did electrodermal activity and subjective ratings of mental workload. Thus, time production is a valid indicator of cognitive involvement in simulated driving and could become a valid method to measure the current mental workload of car drivers in various traffic situations.

  • Wittmann, M., Kiss, M., Gugg, P., Steffen, A., Fink, M., Pöppel, E., & Kamiya, H. (2006). Effects of display position of a visual in-vehicle task on simulated driving. Applied Ergonomics, 37(2), 187–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2005.06.002

    To determine the relative safety of onboard display positions while driving, participants performed a lane-keeping task in a driving simulator. Concurrently, they reacted to a light by pushing the brake pedal. A secondary task was projected onto a display at one of the seven different locations in the cockpit. Behavioral data, eye movements, and subjective rating scales showed that the manipulation of display information during driving disturbed drivers' performance exponentially as a function of distance between the line of sight to the outside primary task and the onboard display position. Vertical eccentricity had a greater detrimental effect than horizontal distance. Under a certain condition with a high secondary task load, reaction time of pushing the brake to the outside stimulus nearly doubled with a diagonal eccentricity of 35 degrees as compared to lower eccentricities. Subjective workload measures complement the behavioral data of clear detrimental effects with eccentricities of at least 35 degrees .

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